Poverty and Income Inequality in South Korea Essay Example for Free

Poverty and In comply Inequality in southbound Korea Essay south Korea is counted among the macrocosms tether economies alongside giants such(prenominal) as United States and Germany (Wiseman Nishiwaki, 2006). Before the financial crisis hit Asia in 1997, southwest Korea was among the fastest growing economies of the world with a Gross house servant Product (gross domestic product) growth rate exceeding 5 part (Kakwani, Khandker, Son). Kwack Lee (2007) report that income diversity had been reduced across the country in front the financial crisis. Moreover, amidst the years 1965 and 2005, income inequality had non signifi canistertly increased. All the same, among the years 1998 and 2005, southern Korea experienced a rise in income inequality seeing that the Asian financial crisis was massive in its scope (Kwack Lee, p. 20). Also, between the years 1990 and 1997, the pctage of southern Korean people classified as pitiable had steadily diminish from 39. 6 percent to 8. 6 percent (Kakwani, Khandker, Son). southwesterly Korea was coming to be cognise as an parsimony with relatively equal distribution of income and with full occupation (Kakwani, Khandker, Son). But, the Asian financial crisis naturally increased the number of deplorable people in the country.In fact, the percentage of poor increased to 19 percent in 1998 it was 13. 4 percent a year later (Kakwani, Khandker, Son). consort to a study conducted by Kakwani, Khandker, Son, the poor of South Korea were disproportionately affected by the Asian financial crisis of 1997. Even though the South Korean economy started to grow again immediately subsequently the crisis, the benefits of growth did not reach the poor as they did the rich. Then again, the government of South Korea introduced new well-being programs for the very poor during that time.The poor people of the country did not benefit from these programs, however. It was scarcely the very poor that were positively impact ed (Kakwani, Khandker, Son). What is more, contrary to the interpretation of income inequality statistics as presented by Kwack Lee, the International Monetary Fund has expressed great concern over this job in South Korea during the present era of globalization (Widening Inequality IMF Acknowledges Downsides of Globalization, 2007). A report published in Korea Times in October 2007 readsMany South Koreans believe the nation has no different choice but to pursue the international tr hold on in a bid to survive fiercer competition with other countries. Policymakers are trying to open the local market wider to foreign products, while promoting sales of Korea, Inc. , under the spirit of freer trade. They go all-out to attract foreign enthronisation by setting up free economic zones and international business towns. Businesses are also expanding their overseas networks for production, sales and investment under the motto of globalization.In this regard, a recent IMF report caught th e attention of economic policymakers, company executives, citizens and anti-globalization activists. Last week, the international body published its semi one-year economic review, the adult male Economic Outlook, before the IMF and the World Bank meeting scheduled for Oct. 20-21. The IMF said in the report that technology and foreign investment are making income inequality worse approximately the world. The review tries to figure out why income inequality has widened in both rich and poor countries in the past two decades.It is the first time that the IMF has come up with such a report admitting to the negative effects of globalization. Over the past two decades, income inequality has risen in most regions and countries, the report said. We can learn much from the report. We yield to admit that South Korea has experienced widening income inequality, especially fol natural depressioning the Asian financial woes. The income brackets have already been divided into 20 percent rich an d 80 percent poor. That is the nations middle class has crumbled because the severance between the rich and poor widened.The 20-80 ratio is on the enclosure of moving to a 10-90 ratio, further worsening the income gap. In addition, businesses have exploited non-regular workers and migrant laborers from foreign countries who suffer from low wages, poor working conditions and other discrimination. A law protecting non-regular workers took effect in July, but little progress has been make to guarantee their equal rights. Policymakers will have to take bolder measures to narrow income inequality and tackle other negative effects of globalization. (Widening Inequality IMF Acknowledges Downsides of Globalization)It is oft stated that globalization is accompanied by a widening gap between the haves and have-nots of the world. When a Korean farmer suddenly appeared during a meeting of World Trade Organization and committed suicide, the problems facing the global political economy were hi ghlighted that, in fact, the interests of the poor must be heeded, better than before. The farmer was wearing a shirt that read, WTO KILLS FARMERS (Cho, 2008, pp. x). After all, it is not uncommon for experts and non-experts alike to claim that the World Trade Organization does not represent the interests of the rich and the poor equally.Nevertheless, there is a limit to how much the World Trade Organization can do for the poorest people of the world. It is, in fact, for the government of South Korea to bear greater responsibility for poor Koreans. According to another news report published in South Korea in the year 2007, The wage distinction of the rase 10 percent of earners versus upper 10 percent rose to a factor of 5. 4 in 2006 from 4. 8 in 2001, meaning that wages for the top decile of earners were nearly five-and-a-half times greater than those of the concluding decile of earners (A Look at South Korean Society, 20 Years after Democracy, 2007)It is for the South Korean go vernment not provided to remedy income distribution in the country but also to implement policies to end abuse as well as discrimination of the poorest workers. Individual income in South Korea rose fivefold between the years 1987 and 2007. But, South Korea has not do progress to end income inequality. The Gini coefficient is typically the statistical measure of choice to assess income distribution. A Gini coefficient of zero indicates abruptly equal income distribution, while a coefficient of 1 indicates perfectly inequality.In 1987, the year that South Korea became a democratic country, its Gini coefficient was 0. 31. By the year 1997, South Koreas Gini coefficient had been reduced to 0. 28 as the country had made strides in reducing the gap between the haves and the have-nots. But then the Asian financial crisis ensued. By 2006, South Koreas Gini coefficient was back to 0. 31. Although the size of the economy had grown from $ five hundred billion to $800 billion, income distr ibution had been reduced between 1997 and 2006. Unsurprisingly, the poorest people of South Korea are confronting discrimination and abuse.After all, the rich are getting richer at the expense of the poor. As a matter of fact, exploitation of labor is reality in South Korea (A Look at South Korean Society, 20 Years after Democracy). Robert J. Barro, a professor of economics at Harvard University, explains that living standards across South Korea were raised with its dramatic rise in GDP. As examples, the infant mortality rate fell from 8 percent to 0. 8 percent and life expectancy rose from 54 years to 73 years. Additionally, income distribution in South Korea has been more equitable as compared to the United States and Japan.When individual income rose in South Korea, low-income groups were beneficiaries, too, and poverty was reduced (Barro, 2003). Then again, as we have already discussed, the Gini coefficient of South Korea in 2006 was the same as in 1987. This reveals that altho ugh the poor people of South Korea have higher wages now than before, the gap between the haves and the have-nots has not been narrowed. So, professor Barro suggests that South Korea must work on improving its education system. If the poor people of South Korea have access to good quality education, it would be easier to improve income distribution.Moreover, the country needs to enhance corporate governance (Barro). These changes are sure to enhance working conditions and living standards of poor workers. Then again, South Korea whitethorn not be able to support half of its elderly households living in a state of relative poverty with these improvements (Korea Highest in Elderly Poverty, 2008). In fact, the income of these households is lower than 50 percent of average household income in the country. Although South Korea has a pension scheme for the elderly, the percentage of the poor that may benefit from the scheme is small.Because the traditions of South Korea demanded of child ren to take care of their parents upon reaching adulthood, the country does not have a developed social insurance system for the elderly. What is more, South Korea is aging fast. At to the lowest degree 7 percent of its poor are over 65 today (Korea Highest in Elderly Poverty, 2008). At the same time as social welfare programs remained underdeveloped, South Korea generated 3100 more people owning at least U. S. $1 million worth liquid assets between the years 2000 and 2001 (Asian Millionaires A Tough Bunch, 2002).According to Australian Banking Finance, among the reasons for this rapid production of millionaires is increasing income inequality (Asian Millionaires A Tough Bunch, 2002). To put it another counsel, corporate leaders are raising their organizational revenues, thanks in part to globalization, even as the poorest workers of their organizations continue to be paid low wages. In the year 2007, South Korea experienced the widest gap between the haves and the have-nots sin ce the Asian financial crisis.In fact, the annual income of 20 percent of South Koreans earning the highest incomes was 5. 44 times greater than the annual income of the 20 percent that earned the lowest incomes. In 2006, the rich were earning 5. 38 times more than those that earn the least (Income Gap at its Widest Point since 1999 Financial Crisis, 2008). Analyzing the statistics, The Hankyoreh reports that income and wage gaps between 20 percent of the highest earners and 20 percent of the lowest earners had actually widened by 7. 9 percent and 11. 7 percent respectively between the years 2002 and 2007.What is more, statistics on income distribution in South Korea reveal that the richest people of the nation are earning more than the people of developed countries, while the poorest South Korean households have incomes that are equivalent to those of households in less developed countries. Even the World Bank has confirmed that poor South Koreans have the same living standards as those of the citizens of El Salvador or Gabon. generous South Koreans, on the contrary, have the same living standards as New Zealanders and Australians (Income Gap at its Widest Point since 1999 Financial Crisis).Professor Barros analysis of income disparity in South Korea must be considered incomplete for the reason that there is no decline in the burden of consumption on low-income households (Income Gap at its Widest Point since 1999 Financial Crisis). These households pay their cellular phone and Internet bills with twice as much of their incomes as do rich households. Despite the fact that wages have increased according to Barro income disparity continues to widen. Son Tae-jeong, one of the researchers at the LG Economic Research Institute in South Korea, stated that salaries increased between the years 2006 and 2007 to boot.However, the poorest workers do not seem to have availed the benefits of the rise in salaries across the country (Income Gap at its Widest Point since 1999 Financial Crisis). South Korea has introduced required legislations to strengthen its social welfare programs. There are social security schemes which are insurance based and applicable only to certain occupational groups. These schemes unfold pensions and healthcare among other things. The government of South Korea also offers subsidies for housing on a limited basis.But, most social security programs in the country only offer benefits related to earnings. Furthermore, these social security schemes are structured in a way that limits income redistribution from high-income to low-income groups (Social Welfare in East Asia get-go state-supported Spending but Low Income Inequality, 2008). Even though there are organizations across the country that continue to retain their unproductive workers, there is no way for them to cure the plague of poverty afflicting the elderly poor of South Korea (Social Welfare in East Asia Low Public Spending but Low Income Inequality).The poor el derly South Koreans cannot be financially supported by their grown up kids because even though labor productivity and GDP have risen together, real wages have lagged behind (Chung, 2007, p. 228). Poor workers have low standards of living in any case, seeing that corporate leaders must focus on raising their own living standards even if they offer support to unproductive workers. Of course, as Barro has stated, education and corporate governance may work wonders in eradicating the problem of poverty facing the worker and his or her elderly parents in South Korea.Uneducated people usually have low living standards (Savada Shaw, 1990). Moreover, in the workplaces of South Korea, these people are treated with open contempt by university graduate managers (Savada Shaw). Increasing numbers of South Korean workers have migrated from agricultural farms to industrial establishments in recent years. Nevertheless, poverty has not been eradicated (Savada Shaw). Rather, the differences betwee n the haves and the have-nots have remained. The Asian financial crisis had negatively impacted both the rich and the poor of South Korea. But, as mentioned before, the poor were disproportionately affected.Poor South Koreans had to reduce their spending by 9. 8 percent in the year 1998. The rich only reduced their spending by 0. 6 percent. Additionally, as soon as the Korean economy was back on its growth track, the rich are known to have greatly increased their spending. In point of fact, the consumption of luxury goods rose to the extent that sales of golf equipment were increased by 357. 6 percent between 1998 and 1999 (Yim, p. 32). The poor South Koreans, on the other hand, were left to their living standards resembling those of people in underdeveloped countries.Of a certainty, the government of South Korea must be formulating and implementing the kinds of policies required to resolve these structural economic issues once and for all. The country possesses the capacity to grow beyond expectations. But, at the same time, income inequality and poverty create such a burden that a South Korean farmer came to commit suicide at a meeting of the World Trade Organization. The rich capitalists of South Korea pay low wages to workers who go on increasing their productivity nevertheless. Furthermore, poor, uneducated workers are abused and exploited in the South Korean workplace.By instituting good corporate governance programs, the government of South Korea may very well correct this problem. After all, it is because of the poor workers motivation to increase productivity that has made South Korea one of the most important economies in the world today. The country would not be able to sustain its economic position if it fails to heed its workers needs. References A Look at South Korean Society, 20 Years after Democracy. (2007, Jun 8). The Hankyoreh. Retrieved Mar 20, 2009, from http//www. hani. co. kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/214664. html.Asian Millionaires A Tough Bunch. (2002, Oct 15). Australian Banking Finance. Retrieved Mar 20, 2009, from http//findarticles. com/p/articles/mi_hb4849/is_18_11/ai_n28954879. Barrow, R. J. (2003, Jun 9). South Korea How to Keep the Miracle Going. Business Week. Retrieved Mar 20, 2009, from http//www. businessweek. com/magazine/content/03_23/b3836031_mz007. htm. Cho, Y. (2008, Oct 10). Participatory Democracy in the Global Public playing field Scale, Media Events, and the Body. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Sheraton New York, New York City, NY Online.Retrieved Mar 20, 2009, from http//www. allacademic. com/one/www/www/index. php? cmd=www_searchoffset=0limit=5multi_search_search_mode=publicationmulti_search_publication_fulltext_mod=fulltexttextfield_submit=truesearch_module=multi_searchsearch=Searchsearch_field=title_idxfulltext_search=Participatory+Democracy+in+the+Global+Public+Sphere%3A+Scale%2C+Media+Events%2C+and+the+Body. Chung, Y. (2007). South Korea in the Fast Lane Economic Development and Capital Formation. New York Oxford University Press. Income Gap at its Widest Point since 1999 Financial Crisis.(2008, Feb 15). The Hankyoreh. Retrieved Mar 20, 2009, from http//english. hani. co. kr/arti/english_edition/e_national/269809. html. Kakwani, N. , Khandker, S. , Son, H. H. Poverty Equivalent Growth Rate With Applications to Korea and Thailand. Retrieved Mar 20, 2009, from http//siteresources. worldbank. org/INTPGI/Resources/13984_Hyun_Sons_paper_pro-poor-final. doc. Korea Highest in Elderly Poverty. (2008, Nov 8). The Korea Times. Retrieved Mar 20, 2009, from http//www. koreatimes. co. kr/www/news/nation/2008/11/113_34066. html. Kwack, S. Y. , Lee, Y. S. (2007, Dec 31).Income statistical distribution in Korea in Historical and International Prospects. Retrieved Mar 20, 2009, from http//www. kdi. re. kr/kdi/report/report_read05. jsp? 1=1pub_no=10341. Savada, A. M. , Shaw, W. , eds. (1990). Social Classes in Contemp orary Society. In South Korea A estate Study. Washington GPO Library of Congress. Retrieved Mar 20, 2009, from http//countrystudies. us80/south-korea/. Social Welfare in East Asia Low Public Spending but Low Income Inequality. (2008, Jul). magnetic core for Analysis of Social Exclusion. Retrieved Mar 20, 2009, from http//sticerd. lse. ac.uk/dps/case/cb/CASEbrief7. pdf.Widening Inequality IMF Acknowledges Downsides of Globalization. (2007, Oct 19). The Korea Times. Retrieved Mar 20, 2009, from http//www. bilaterals. org/article. php3? id_article=10033. Wiseman, P. , Nishiwaki, N. (2006, Jul 23). Income Inequality Shrinks Japans Middle Class. USA Today. Retrieved Mar 20, 2009, from http//www. usatoday. com/money/world/2006-07-23-japan-usat_x. htm. Yim, S. Geographical Features of Social Polarization in Seoul, South Korea. Retrieved Mar 20, 2009, from http//www. lit. osaka-cu. ac. jp/geo/pdf/frombelow/0308_frombelow_yim. pdf.

Higher education Essay Example for Free

Higher education EssayIt still wouldnt be free just a redistribution of who is paying Doesnt address the main issue of the spicy price and what is the cause. State bud build cuts are mainly to clean How many countries do free college.Make student loans easier to obtain, and with more time to pay back, and lower interest rate. the second big problem, however, is that I think we should get more cynical than Bruenig does. If the level of subsidy were increased enough to eliminate tuition, the faculty and administrators of public universities would still thirst for more money. A logical wander to raise the money would betuition. After all, a college degree is a valuable commodity. And the kids in college are mostly from families with above-average incomes. Having eliminated tuition, the tuition would simply come back. In exchange, youd get more tenure-track faculty, more administrators, more weird perks for university presidents, nicer facilities, etc. there is already a cheaper o ption community college.it forces the students to obtain higher grades in high school for a possible scholarship option But I think we should loop this back around to where we started. I agree with Bady that theres an important sensory faculty in which the best-known public institutions of higher education arent public. But it isnt that they arent free. National Parks arent free. But theyre still public institutions.Because theyre open to the public. Community colleges are likewise open to the public. But schools that only let you in if you have high SAT scoreswhoever owns them and whatever they chargearent public in this sense. And in a world where the cost of financing health care and retirement for an aging society is pressuring public budgets, Id make them stand behind other more by and large public forms of education for money.

Most Beautiful And Interesting Buildings In History Construction Essay

Most Beautiful And Interesting Buildings In History Construction judgeDuring modern era nowadays, exciting new innovations in the world of building construction has brought soaring skyscrapers and fresh new approaches to building design. Actually since many eld ago building construction was a signifi bungholet part of our industrial field. If roughlybody asks what is the most significant, most beautiful and most interesting of the past deoxyguanosine monophosphate years, there leave alone be no single correct answer for this question. Some get out opt the Taj Mahal or Eiffel newspaper column while others might choose the soaring skyscrapers as the most significant building. Perhaps the most innovative building is non fixed for the grand monument only nevertheless sometimes obscure shoes and temples in addition. These are some of overlooked treasure that still exists till now.The first matchless is Forbidden City in Beijing,China or some people called it as Purple Forbid den City or Gugong Museum in Chinese. It is one of the largest and best-preserved palace complexes in the world. In Gugong Museum there are over a million rare and valuable objects. It is built between 1406 and 1420 during the Ming Dynasty by a rectangular champaign of more than 720000 square meters. The Forbidden City was the imperial home for 24 emperors of the Ming ( 1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties.http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/? run=viewHYPERLINK http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/? go through=viewcurrent=pic1.jpgHYPERLINK http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/? perform=viewcurrent=pic1.jpgcurrent=pic1.jpgNext is Basilica Palladiana building. The architect who was Andrea Palladio gave the Basilica in Vicenza, Italy two styles of classical columns which are doric on the spurn portion and ionic on the upper portion. Originally, the Basilica was a 15th century Gothic building that serve as the town hall for V icenza and also contained shop. When the gray-headed building collapsed, Andrea Palladio won the commission to design a reconstruction of this building. He grabbed this opportunity and created a great stunning transformation covering the old gothic facade with marble columns and porticos modelled after the classical architecture of ancient Rome.http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewHYPERLINK http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewcurrent=pic2.jpgHYPERLINK http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewcurrent=pic2.jpgcurrent=pic2.jpgEiffel Tower in Paris is also one of past greatest building construction. Eiffel Tower was built on 1889 and pioneered new uses for metal construction. Perhaps it was the most famous example of this new use for metal. With 324 feet, Eiffel Tower was measured as the tallest building structure in the world for 40 years. The metal lattice-work formed with very pure structural iron make the tower both extremely light and able to withstand tremendous wind force. During the construction, the Eiffel was considered as an eyesore for the French but the criticism died down once the construction was completed.http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewHYPERLINK http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewcurrent=pic3.jpgHYPERLINK http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewcurrent=pic3.jpgcurrent=pic3.jpgThe Fuller Building in New York is one of the worlds earliest skyscrapers and has been designed by Daniel Burnham architect. It was built on 1902 with a height of 285 feet. The wedge shaped similar a clothing iron of this building make it became known as Flatiron Building. This unusual shape of building is because to maximise the use of the triangular lot. A sturdy steel skeleton that has been used during the construction of this building allowed it to achieve record-breaking height without the need for wide reinforcement walls at the foundation.http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewHYPERLINK http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewcurrent=pic4.jpgHYPERLINK http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewcurrent=pic4.jpgcurrent=pic4.jpgNowadays, there is many and more big challenge facing us. The technology shifts had made the construction technology at present more advanced and the world is getting smarter. The construction methods, structure or sustainable building, design and the construction system are rarely important non only at national level but also globally. The example of advance construction building in the world now are the CCTV headquarter in China, Bird Nest Olympic Stadium, Khalifa Building at Dubai and some of other buildings. One of the form that being used today is insulated concrete from construction technology.Insulated concrete form are lightweight, highly durable foam bloc ks or forms composed of an expanded or extruded polystyrene and recycled materials. These are the formwork that stay a permanent building separation fore cast in place, reinforced concrete walls, floor and roofs. The forms are consisted of interlocking modular units that are dry stacked and concrete filled. The forms just like LEGO bricks that create form for structural walls or roofs. The concrete is pumped into cavity and stacked in shape. The reinforcing steel bar is placed inside to give flexural strength. The forms are left permanently for the reason of thermal and acoustic insulation and the space to run electrical conduit and plumbing. The advantage of insulated concrete form is that it reduces the consumption of energy, the concrete will absorb solar heat and release it slowly so that heat is distributed throughout the home. Besides it create lower noise from outside world as it high in sound absorption and the system contribute to more peaceful and healthy environment.Over the past 30 years, construction practices had not genuinely changed much because many people thought that there are no problems development the traditional practices. However, for current situation the old practices might be not practical anymore due issues that involved limited area and construction costs that continue to rise in the country and also around the world. Therefore, by using the effective method of construction, we actually can overcome these problems. After several researches that consider all of the elements, there are some methods that believe can practices in the future such(prenominal) as modular construction and sustainable construction (green construction). By using these methods to construct a building, a lot of benefits we could get on in terms of time consuming, capital cost, labour cost and so on.In Malaysia, modular coordination or construction in building had been practiced such a long time ago. It is well documented in Malaysian Standard MS 10064 Part 1-10 2001. This practices can provides dimensional basis for the coordination of the dimensions and of those buildings incorporating them, however it also acts to systematization and industrialization of the building industry. In addition, modular construction can be applied by adding or reducing the size or removing certain components.For ontogenesis country likes Malaysia, this method will ease the contractor to face the project that running in busy area or high capacity area because it is speed construction and faster returned in investment. In common method of construction, once projects might need to be make in 12 months but by practicing modular construction the work can be done in 90 120 days only. This is because, the buildings are sectional prefabricated buildings that consist of dual modules or sections which are manufactured in a remote facility and then delivered to the site. Modular construction allows the building and the site works to be done simultaneously and t his will reduce the time until 50%. Furthermore, the quality of modular buildings is made to match and adhere to all the same building codes as trite construction. Thus, when the building is rebuild the structure become high in quality compared with the previous structure. Moreover, by using this method, all problems involve weather delays, logistical problems and level-headed hassles increase in turn can be solved because the structure is not build in the site. A lot of advantages we can gain found on modular construction and it is not hard to imagine if the future commercial developments are completed by using this method.http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewHYPERLINK http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewcurrent=pic5.jpgHYPERLINK http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewcurrent=pic5.jpgcurrent=pic5.jpgModular house by Broadway Malyan for Sime Darby Property as a first speed of light zero hous e in Southern East Asia.http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewHYPERLINK http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewcurrent=pic6.jpgHYPERLINK http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewcurrent=pic6.jpgcurrent=pic6.jpgThe house not only pushed costs expand but also speed up the construction processOn the other hand, sustainable construction is one of the practices that might be used widely in future. It involves a greater emphasis on the environmental implication of policy and business decisions in addition to the traditional focus on economic and social objectives. Sustainable building can include measures to reduce energy consumption and associated emissions of carbon dioxide, minimize the use of resources such as water, construction material, etc., reduce the release of pollutants, maximize the use of sustainably sources and recycled materials likes timber, promote sustainable travel choices through publi c imparting and cycling provision, save and enhance biodiversity. Example of sustainable building is building that use sunlight through passive solar, active solar and photovoltaic techniques and using plants and trees through green roofs, rain garden and for reduction of rainwater run-off. Besides that, by using packed gravel or permeable concrete rather of conventional concrete or asphalt to enhance addition ground water, are used as well.Nevertheless, based on the study done by some researchers, the department usually failed to achieve target ratings and environmental assessment by the government. 80% of the projects are not attained the required standards. Various factors last to these problems are lack of coherent monitoring on the progress of the projects by the government bodies, lack of sufficient knowledge and expertise in sustainable procurement among those department staff responsible for them, negative perception about the conflict between sustainability and value fo r money and so on. However, this barriers can be solved by establish a clear information to the division of policy that responsible on sustainable construction to the public sector so that the public will acknowledge clearly about the policy of sustainable construction. Then the responsible division can also establish a source of expertise that useable to all departments to provide advice on sustainable construction for smaller construction and refurbishment projects.http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewHYPERLINK http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewcurrent=pic7.jpgHYPERLINK http//s1141.photobucket.com/albums/n589/nadiahasbullah/?action=viewcurrent=pic7.jpgcurrent=pic7.jpgBird Island is currently developed in Kuala Lumpur. Designed by Grafts Lab Architect for YTL Green Home Competition.In a nutshell, for future building construction, all elements of environmental friendly must be considered in order to construct a building or structure. This is because as we know, we need to save our Earth by reducing energy costs such as electrics, reduce air quality and construction materials and many more. Therefore, by applying modular construction and green construction will lead us to help our nature.

Agricultural science and practice

Agricultural science and practiceREVIEW OF LITERATUREINTERCROPPINGInter setping of cereals and shred legumes is a neglected theme in agricultural science and practice in both conventional and extreme farming musical arrangements (Dahlmann, and Von Fragstein2006). The fast boost commonwealth in many tropical countries is one of the reasons for enormous growing demand for victuals. The increasing urbanization due to world growing population has affected forage doing leading to irrevocable loss of arable atomic number 18na. Opening up new land for cultivation usher out enhance the decrease of horticulture. Farmers and researchers should be advised that cost-benefit ratio bringing new land under cultivation is smaller than that of increasing production of already cultivated land, which uncloudedthorn lead to increase in production per unit area.Inter increaseping tenders farmers the opportunity to engage natures principle of diversity on their farms. Spatial arrangements o f plants, planting rates, and maturity dates must be considered when planning inter straddles. Inter rakes can be more fruitful than growing mono sourping. numerous contrastive intercrop systems earn been studied, including compound intercropping, strip cropping, and customary intercropping provisions. Pest solicitude benefits can also be know from intercropping due to augmented diversity. Harvesting options for intercrops take on hand harvest, machine harvest for on-farm feed, and animal harvest of the standing crop. Most grain-crop mixtures with similar ripening times cannot be machine-harvested to produce a marketable commodity since few buyers purchase mixed grains. Dispite its advantages intercropping is neglected due to interlinking nature of intercropping systems.In intercropping systems an LER measures 1.0, it tells us that the amount of land necessary for crops grown together is the resembling as that for these grown in utter(a) stand (i.e., neither loss nor los s due to intercropping over pure stands). LERs above 1.0 demonstrate an advantage to intercropping, while numbers be embarrassed 1.0 diplay a disadvantage to intercropping. For example, an LER of 1.25 tells us that the allot produced in the tot up intercrop system would have required 25% more land if planted in pure stands. If the LER was 0.75, we know the intercrop yield was only 75% of that of the same amount of land that grew pure stands.Pakistan is a subtropical country having sufficient re radicals with high intensity of sunlight required for plant growth. Therefore, possibility of intercropping of different crops on the same piece of land in a year needs to be explored for effective and businesslike utilization of these natural resources. Intercropping is being looked as an efficient utilization of these natural resources and economical production system as it increases the production per unit area and time. Presently, interest in intercropping is increasing among the small growers because of their diversified needs and meagre farm re enactments from the monocropping system.Planning of cropping system should be done yearly on entire catchment basis. The type of planning should lead to a proper balance amidst food, fiber and fodder crops. When the rain is between 500-700 mm with a distinct period of moisture surplus, intercropping system should be adopted for improved crop production. Even in higher rainfall areas (750- 1100 mm) intercropping facilitates growing either cereal-legume or legume-legume system of different maturity patterns. Intercropping minimize risk of crop failure in drylands. Mixed cropping (mixing seeds of two or more crops and broad casting the mixture) should be avoided as it hinders stock-sowing operations. Choice of varieties with in the crops is very outstanding to harness total intercropping advantage. Cereal-legume intercropping systems should be advocated to minimize fertilizer use,.? reduce pesterer and disease incidenc e, produce balance foods, ? impart protein rich legume fodder for cattle,? take full advantage of growing chasten.Cereal-legume intercropping plays an important role in subsistence food production in both developed and developing countries, especially in situations of inadequate water resources (Tsubo et al., 2005). Intercropping cereals and grain legumes can be very potential for both innate and conservative farmers. The use of land like ratio (LER) as a measure for calculating the cropping advantage of intercrops over sole crops is simple, ignoring weed inhibition, yield reliability, grain quality, and minimum advantageous yield are all relevant factors for farmers perspective (Prins and de Wit 2005).Intercropped legumes secure most of their nitrogen from the atmosphere and not grapple with maize nitrogen resources (Adu-Gyamfi et al. ,2007). Increased diversity of the physical structure of plants and increase leaf cover in an intercropping system facilitates to reduce weed inf estations once crop are established (Beet1990). Having a variety of stemma system in the grime reduces water loss, enhances water inlet and reduce transpiration. The increased transpiration may constitute the microclimate cooler, which cools the grunge and decrease evaporation (Innis 1997). In this way during times of water stress, intercropped plants apply a larger percentage of available water from the field than monocropped plants. Creating windbreaks may also modify the microclimate. Rows of maize in a field with a short stature crop would reduce wind speed above the shorter crop and thus deceasechance of desiccation (Beet1990). Intercropped legumes fix most of their nitrogen from the atmosphere and not compete with maize for nitrogen resources (Adu-Gyamfi et al. ,2007 Vesterager et al.,2008).Diversification of cropping systems, i.e. smaller fields and mixtures of crop species (intercropping) was ofttimes more in vouge Pre World War II. Intercropping, the simultaneously c ultivation of more than one species in the same field, is a cropping method, which often result in a more efficient use of resources, cause more stable yields in problematic environments and a method to reduce problems with weeds, plant pathogens and nitrogen losses post grain legume harvest.In this context a great introduction of longterm rotations, intercrops and grain legumes play an important role (Jensen 1997 Karlen1994). Intercropping of cereal and legume crops facilitates to maintain and improve soil fertility (Andrew, 1979).Intercropping of legumes with cereals has been popular in tropics (Hauggaard-Nielsen et al.,, 2001 Tsubo et al.,,2005) and rain-fed tracts of the globe (Banik et al.,, 2000 Ghosh, 2004 Agegnehu et al.,, 2006 Dhima et al.,,2007) due to its benefits for soil conservation (Anil et al., 1998), weed control (Poggio, 2005 Banik et al.,,2006), lodging resistance (Anil et al.,, 1998), yield enhancemnent (Anil et al.,, 1998 Chen et al.,, 2004), convert curing, f orage preservation over pure legumes, more crude protein percentage and protein yield (Qamar et al.,, 1999 Karadag and Buyukburc, 2004), and contols legume root parasite infections (Fenandez-Aparicio et al.,,2007).Different seeding ratios or planting patterns for cereal-legume intercropping have been accomplished by many researchers (Tsubo et al.,, 2001 Karadag and Buyukburc, 2004 Banik et al.,, 2006 Dhima et al.,, 2007). Competition among mixtures is eyeshot to be the major characteristic affecting yield as compared with monocropping of cereals. Species or cultivar selections, seeding ratios, and inter and intra specific contest among mixtures may knead the growth of the species grown in intercropping systems in rain-fed areas (Santalla et al.,, 2001 Karadag and Buyukburc, 2004 Carr et al.,, 2004 Agegnehu et al.,, 2006 Banik et al.,, 2006 Dhima et al.,, 2007).Various competitor indices much(prenominal) as land equivalent ratio (LER), relative displace coefficient (RCC), compet itive ratio (CR), actual yield loss (AYL), financial advantage(MI) and intercropping advantage(IA) have been pass judgment to portray competition within and economic advantages of intercropping systems (Banik et al.,, 2000 Ghosh, 2004 Agegnehu et al.,, 2006 Banik et al.,, 2006 Dhima et al.,, 2007). However, such indices have not been used for maize and common bean intercropping to determine the competition among species and also economic advantages of each intercropping system in the East Mediterranean region. loftyer monetary returns were obtained compared to sole cropping when bush beans intercropped with sweet maize (Santalla et al.,, 2001). Higher seed yield and net income under planting pattern with changing mix-proportions may be explained in higher total productivity under intercropping with relatively less input investment (Banik et al.,, 2006).Tsubo et al., (2005) formed a simulation model to find out the opera hat planting methods for maize and bean intercrops in sub-a rid South Africa. Based on 52 years of weather data, they compared the best planting time, optimal water saturation at planting, maize plant density, and bean plant density to receive the highest LER, energy value (EV), and monetary value (MV) from the intercropped field. For every combination of factors, a LER greater than 1.0 was found, indicating that intercropping of maize and beans increases total yield. The simulations visualise that initial soil water content has the greatest define on intercropping productivity. Bean plant density had no bewitch on maize or bean yields, indicating that maize yield is not affected by bean intercropping, although bean yields were decreased in the intercropped system (Tsubo et al., 2005). High densities of maize maximized maize yield and calorie production, but high densities of beans maximized financial return. Decline of external inputs and increases of homegrown feed together with a more efficient food use from leguminous symbiotic dini trogen (N2) fixation (SNF) can result in a decrease of nitrogen and mineral losses. Maize-legume intercropping systems are able to change magnitude amount of nutrients taken from the soil in comparasion to a maize monocrop.Organizing the complication of exchanges that are possible due to the physical constraints of diversity are present in the farm system is vital part of reducing the need for external inputs and moving toward sustainability (Herrera, 1974). Increasing diversity often allows better resources use efficiency in agro ecosystem because with higher diversity, there is larger microhabitat differentiation, allowing the components species and varieties of the system to grow in an environment ideally fitting to its unique requirements (Mazaheri and Oveysi, 2004 Willey and Reddy1981 and Yancey, 1994). A severalize and straight way of rising diversity of an agro ecosystem is intercropping system that allows interaction between the individuals of the different crops and varie ties (Mazaheri, 2004 Willey, 1981 and Venkatswarlu1981).Intercropping can add temporal diversity through the sequential planting of different crops during the same season (Yancey, 1994). Importance of multiple cropping is increasing world food supplies. An LER value of 1.0, indicating no difference in yield between the intercrop and the collection of monocultures (Mazaheri and Oveysi, 2004 and Kurata 1986). Any Value greater than 1.0 indicates a yield advantage for intercrop. A LER of 1.2 for example, indicates that the area planted to monocultures would need to be 20% greater than the area planted to intercrop for the two to produce the same combined yields (Laster and Furr,1972). Intercropping in cassava was beneficial in increasing the biologic yield, tuber equivalent yield and land use efficiency. Cassava tuber equivalent yield, LER, ATER and AHER were higher in cassava + cowpea combinations.(Amanullah et al., 2006). Mixed culture (or intercropping) of legumes and cereals is an old practice in tropical agriculture that dates back to ancient civilization. The main target of intercropping has been to maximum utilization of resources such as space, light and nutrients (Willey, 1990 Morris and Garrity, 1993 Li et al.,, 2003b), as well as to improve crop quality and quantity (Nel, 1975 Izaurralde et al.,, 1990 Mpairwe et al.,, 2002).Other benefits include water quality control through least use of in extreme nitrogen fertilisers that pollute the environment (Crew and Peoples, 2004). The contemporary drift in global agriculture is to search for highly productive, sustainable and environmentally safe cropping systems (Crew and Peoples, 2004). This has resulted into renewed interest in cropping systems research (Vandermeer, 1989). When two crops are grown in association, interspecific competition or facilitation between plants may take place (Vandermeer, 1989 Zhang et al.,, 2003).Different studies have shown that mixtures of cereals and legumes produce higher gr ain yields than either crop grown unaccompanied (Mead and Willey, 1980 Horwith, 1984 Tariah and Wahua, 1985 Ofori and Stern, 1987a Lawson and Kang, 1990 Watiki et al.,, 1993 Peter and Runge-Metzger, 1994 Skovgard and Pats, 1999 Rao and Mathuva, 2000 Olufemi et al.,, 2001 Mpairwe et al.,, 2002 Dapaah et al.,, 2003). In such crop mixtures, the yield increases were not only due to enhanced nitrogen nourishment of the cereal component, but also to other unexplored causes (Nel, 1975 Connolly et al.,, 2001).Many of the unknown and less research processes occur in the rhizosphere of mixtures (Connolly et al.,, 2001 Zhang et al.,, 2003, 2004). The rhizosphere soil is the narrow zone of soil neighboring the grow where soil, micro-organisms and roots jointly play key roles in the soil ecosystem. Compared with the bulk soil, the rhizosphere has diverse biological, physical and chemical soil properties. It is rich in root exudates, and, therefore, play a major role in nutrient mobilisation and microbic activities (Dakora and Phillips, 2002 Dakora, 2003). So far however, little attention has been paid to rhizosphere effects on crops grown in mixtures (Connolly et al.,, 2001 Zhang et al.,, 2003 2004), where interaction between different organisms is high. The major instruction practices employed in mixed cultures to attain good yield includes the enhancement of microclimatic conditions, improved utilisation and recycling of soil nutrients, improved soil quality, provision of favourable habitats for plants and stabilisation of soil, among others (Juma et al.,, 1997).Most of intercropping systems are intentionally made and verifyd to optimise the use of spatial, temporal, and physical resources both above-and belowground, by maximising positive interactions (facilitation) and minimizing pre saucy ones (competition) among the components (Willey and Osiru, 1972 Willey, 1979 Mead and Willey, 1980 Horwith, 1985 Ofori and Stern, 1986, 1987a, b Jose et al.,, 2000 Silwana and Lu cas, 2002). An understanding of the biological and chemical processes and mechanisms involved in the distribution of resources in such systems is indispensable. The complex interactions in legume/cereal cropping systems such as those used by traditional farmers have received little research attention (Connolly et al.,, 2001 Zhang et al.,, 2004) because quantitative rhizosphere studies in the field involving complex mixtures are notoriously complex and cumbersome. These conditions are achieved by manipulating management practices such as planting patterns of the mixtures with the selection of appropriate cropping systems.Interactions will occur in the growth process, especially when the component species are exploiting the resources above-and below-ground (Vandermer, 1989 Willey, 1990 Ong et al.,, 1996) from the same niche or at the same time. In crop mixtures, any species utilizing the same combination of resources will be in direct competition. However, base on differences in phen ological characteristics of species in asocition, the interaction among them may lead to an increased capture of a limiting growth resource (Willey and Osiru, 1972 Willey, 1979 Mead and Willey, 1980 Horwith, 1985 Ofori and Stern, 1986, 1987a,b Silwana and Lucas, 2002) and then amassing larger total yield than the collective production of those species if they were grown separately on an equivalent land area (Mead and Ndakidemi 2527 Willey, 1980 Horwith, 1984 Tariah and Wahua, 1985 Ofori and Stern, 1987a Lawson and Kang, 1990 Watiki et al.,, 1993 Peter and Runge-Metzger, 1994 Myaka, 1995 Asafu-Agyei et al.,, 1997 Skovgard and Pats, 1999 Rao and Mathuva, 2000 Olufemi et al.,, 2001 Dapaah et al.,, 2003). Thus, mixed cropping systems between cereals and legumes may face a complex series of inter- and intra-specific interaction (Izaurralde et al.,, 1990 Giller and Cadisch, 1995 Evans et al.,, 2001 Li et al.,, 2003c) geared by modifications and utilisation of light, water, nutrients and e nzymes.Most annual crop mixtures such as those involving cereals and legumes are grown more or less at the same time, and develop root systems that acquire the same soil zone for resources (Horwith, 1984 Chang and Shibles, 1985a,b Reddy et al.,, 1994 Jensen et al.,, 2003). Under such circumstances, below-ground competition for resources such as nutrients is most in all probability to take place. For example, research has shown that activities in maize + cowpea intercropping take place between the top 30-45 cm of soil, and their intensity decreased with depth (Maurya and Lal, 1981 McIntyre et al.,, 1997). Because of these interactions, cowpea yields can be reduced pregnantly in relationto that of maize (Watiki et al.,, 1993).In contrast to some negative effects on yield, root systems in mixtures may provide some of the major favorable effects on soil and plants. These include, amongst others, carbon enrichment through higher carbon return (Ridder et al.,, 1990 Vanlauwe et al.,, 19 97), discharge of phenolics, phytosiderophores and carboxylic acids as root exudates by companion plants (Dakora and Phillips, 2002 Dakora, 2003). These compounds play a major role in the mineral nutrition of plants. For instance, some studies have displayed that, in P-deficient soils, pigeon pea roots utilize piscidic, malonic, and oxalic acids to solubilise Fe-, Ca- and Al-bound P (Ae et al.,, 1990). Once mobilised, P and Fe then become available for uptake by the pigeon pea plant as well as by plant species grown in association and micro flora in the cropping system.This is due to the fact that, thus far, research efforts on mixed cultures has centered on the intra- and inter-specific competition for light and water, and research reports on competition for nutrients in legumes and cereal mixtures (Connolly et al.,, 2001 Zhang et al.,, 2003, 2004). It is, therefore, imperative to discover how the rhizosphere systems of the associated plant species in mixtures interact under differ ent legume-cereal cropping systems.Rhizospheric pH changes in different management systems in legume/cereal mixturesMany plants have the ability to alter the pH of their rhizosphere (Hoffland et al.,, 1989, 1992 Raven et al.,, 1990 Degenhardt et al.,, 1998 Muofhe and Dakora, 2000 Dakora and Phillips, 2002) and improve nutrient accessibility such as P, K, Ca, and Mg, which are otherwise fixed and not available to plants (Vandermeer, 1989 Hauggaard- Nielson and Jensen, 2005). For instance, legumes induce numerous reactions that modify the rhizosphere pH (Jarvis and Robson, 1983 McLay et al.,, 1997 Tang et al.,, 1998, 2001) and influence nutrient uptake (Brady, 1990 Vizzatto et al.,, 1999). For example, Dakora et al., (2000) have shown that due to pH changes in the rhizosphere, Cyclopia genistoides, a tea-producing legume native to South Africa, increased nutrient availability in its rhizosphere by 45 great hundred% for P, 108 161% for K, 120 148% for Ca, 127 225% for Mg and 117 250% for boron (B) compared to bulk non-rhizosphere soil. Hence, legumes may take up higher amounts of base cations, and in the process of balancing internal charge, print H+ ions into the rhizosphere that results in soil acidification (Jarvis and Robson, 1983 McLay et al.,, 1997 Tang et al.,, 1998, 2001 Sas et al.,, 2001 Dakora and Phillips, 2002 Cheng et al.,, 2004).Other legumes such as alfalfa, chickpea, lupines, and cowpea can release considerable amounts of organic anions and lower their rhizospere pH (Liptone et al.,, 1987 Dinkelaker et al.,, 1989, 1995 Braum and Helmke, 1995 Gilbert et al.,, 1999 von Neumann et al.,, 1999 Rao et al.,, 2002 Li et al.,, 2004b), a condition favorable for the hydrolysis of organic P and hence improving P2O5 nutrition for plants and micro organism in the soil. In the same context, clean lupine (Lupinus albus) exuded organic acids anions and protons that lowered rhizosphere pH and recovered substantial amount of P2O5 from the soil and made them more available to wheat than when it was grown in caveman cropping system (Horst and Waschkies, 1987 Kamh et al.,, 1999). Similarly, pigeon pea increased P2O5 uptake of the intercropped sorghum by exuding piscidic acid anions that chelated Fe3+ and subsequently released P2O5 from FePO4 (Ae et al.,, 1990). In a field trial, faba bean facilitated P2O5 uptake by maize (Zhang et al.,, 2001 Li et al.,, 1999, 2003b Zhang and Li, 2003). In another comparative study, the ability of chickpea to mobilise organic P2O5 was shown to be greater than that of maize due to greater transudate of protons and organic acids by chickpea in relation to maize (Li et al.,, 2004a). Thus, in mixed cultures, plants such as cereals, which do not have strong rhizosphere acidification condenser can benefit directly from nutrients solubilised by legume root exudates. What is, however, not clearly known is the extent of rhizosphere pH changes in mixed cultures involving nodulated legumes and cereals and their i nfluence on other biological and chemical processes in the soil.N2 FIXATION IN LEGUMES AND THE ASSOCIATEDBENEFITS TO THE CEREAL COMPONENTBiological nitrogen fixation by grain legume crops has received a lot of attention (Eaglesham et al.,, 1981 Giller et al.,, 1991 Izaurralde et al.,, 1992 Giller and Cadisch, 1995 Peoples et al.,, 2002) because it is a considerable N source in agricultural ecosystems (Heichel, 1987 Dakora and Keya, 1997). However, studies on N2 fixation in complex cereal-legume mixtures are few (Stern, 1993 Peoples et al.,, 2002). Intercropping usually includes a legume which fixes N2 that benefits the system, and a cereal component that depends heavily on nitrogen for higher yield (Ofori and Stern, 1986 Cochran and Schlentner, 1995). Controlled studies have shown a significant direct transfer of fixed-N to the associated non-legume species (Eaglesham et al.,, 1981 Giller et al.,, 1991 Frey and Schepp, 1993 Stern, 1993 Elgersma et al.,, 2000 Hgh-Jensen and Schjoerri ng, 2000 Chu et al.,, 2004). There was evidence that the mineralisation of decomposing legume roots in the soil can boost N availability to the allied crop (Dubach and Russelle, 1994 Schroth et al.,, 1995 Evans et al.,, 2001). In mixed cultures, where row arrangements and the distance of the legume from the cereal are far, nitrogen transfer could decrease. Research has shown that competition between cereals and legumes for nitrogen may in turn kindle N2 fixation activity in the legumes (Fujita et al.,, 1990 Hardarson and Atkins, 2003). The cereal component effectively drains the soil of N, forcing the legume to fix more N2. Therefore it is important to manipulate and establish how the management practice in legume-cereal mixtures may influence N2 fixation and nutrition in cropping systems.The microbial biomass is influenced by biological, chemical, and physical properties of the plant-soil system. Generally, soil and plant management practices may have greater impact on the level of soil microbial C (Gupta and Germida, 1988 Dick et al.,, 1994 Dick, 1997 Alvey et al.,, 2003). For instance, soil microbial C tend to show the highest values in cropland and grassland soils and the lowest in bare cultivated soils (Brookes et al.,, 1984 Gupta and Germida, 1988).Monoculture systems are expected to contain less amounts of microbial biomass and activities in comparison to those in mixed cultures (Moore et al.,, 2000). Studies have indicated that legumes accumulated larger amounts of soil microbial C in the soil than cereals (Walker et al.,, 2003). This is attributed to lower C N ratio of legume than that of cereal (Uriyo et al.,, 1979 Brady, 1990). microbial biomass activities could increase after the addition of an energy source. The stimulation of soil microbial biomass activity by organic amendments is elevated than that induced by organic fertilisers (Bolton et al.,, 1985 Goyal et al.,, 1993 Hflich et al.,, 2000). Soil organic theme content and soil microbial act ivities, vital for the nutrient turnover and long term productivity of soil, are enhanced by the balanced application of nutrient and/or organic matter/ spread out (Bolton et al.,, 1985 Guan, 1989 Goyal et al.,, 1993 Hflich et al.,, 2000 Kanchikerimath and Singh, 2001). Under conditions of adequate nutrient supply such as P2O5, the microbial biomass C will be increased due to improved plant growth and increased turnover of organic matter in the soil (Bolton et al.,, 1985). Whether the management practices in mixed cultures involving legumes and cereals may favour the stimulation of biological soil activity and, thus, result in a higher turnover of organic substrates in the soil that are utilized by micro-organisms is a good subject to be investigated. Although there is a lot of information that show the relationship between soil management and soil microbial activity, little is known about these effects under mixed cropping systems as practised by farmers in the tropical/ subtropica l environments (Dick, 1984 Dick et al.,, 1988 Deng and Tabatabai, 1996). In this context, the measurement of their activities could provide useful information concerning soil health, and also serve as a good index of biological status in different crop production systems.PHOSPHATASE ACTIVITY IN LEGUME/CEREAL MIXTURESPlants have evolved many morphological and enzymatic adaptations to bear low phosphate availability. This includes transcription activity of acid phosphatases, which tends to increase under P2O5 starvation (Tarafdar and Jungk, 1987 Goldstein, 1992 Duff et al.,, 1994 del Pozo et al.,, 1999 Haran et al.,, 2000 Baldwin et al.,, 2001 Miller et al.,, 2001 Li et al.,, 2002). Phosphatase enzymes in the soil serve several important functions, and are good indicators of soil fertility (Dick and Tabatai, 1992 Eivazi and Tabatabai, 1997 Dick et al.,, 2000). Under conditions of P2O5 deficiency, acid phosphatase secreted from roots is greater than before (Nakas et al.,, 1987 Chrost, 1991Hayes et al.,, 1999 Li et al.,, 1997). Gilbert et al., (1999) found that white lupin roots from P-deficient plants had significantly superior acid phosphatase activity in both the root extracts and the root exudates than comparable samples from P-sufficient plants. At various starvation levels, these enzymes release phosphate from both cellular (Bariola et al.,, 1994) and extra cellular (Duff et al.,, Ndakidemi 2529 1994) organic compounds. The transcripts and activity of phosphate transporters are increased to optimise uptake and remobilisation of phosphate in P-deficient plants (Muchhal et al.,, 1996 Daram et al.,, 1999 Kai et al.,, 2002 Karthikeyan et al.,, 2002 Mudge et al.,, 2002 Versaw and Harrison, 2002).It is thought that these morphological and enzymatic responses to P starvation are coordinated by both general stress-related and P-specific signaling systems. The amount of acid phosphatase secreted by plants is genetically controlled, and differs with crop species and v arieties (Izaguirre-Mayoral and Carballo, 2002) as well as crop management practices (Patra et al.,, 1990 Staddon et al.,, 1998 Wright and Reddy, 2001). Some studies have shown that the amount of enzymes secreted by legumes were 72 % higher than those from cereals (Yadav and Tarafdar, 2001). Li et al., (2004a) found that, chickpea roots were also able to secrete greater amounts of acid phosphatase than maize. The activity of acid phosphatases is expected to be higher in biologically managed systems because of higher quantity of organic C content found in those systems. In fact, the activity of acid and alkaline phosphatase was found to correlate with organic matter in various studies (Guan, 1989 Jordan and Kremer, 1994 Aon and Colaneri, 2001). It is, therefore, anticipated that management practices in mixed cultures that induce P stress in the rhizosphere, may also affect the secretion of these enzymes. To date, there have been few studies examining the influence of cropping system on the phosphatase activity in the rhizosphere of most legumes and cereals grown in Pakistan. Understanding the dynamics of enzyme activities in these systems is crucial for their assessment their interactions as in turn their activities may regulate nutrient uptake and plant growth in the ecosystem.EFFECT OF ORGANIC, BIOLOGICAL ANDCHEIMCAL FERTLIZERS ON CROPS AND SOILApplication of organic manures has various advantages such as increasing soil physical properties, water holding capacity, and organic carbon content apart from supplying good quality of nutrients. The addition of organic sources could increase the yield through improving soil productivity and higher fertilizer use efficiency (Santhi, and Selvakumari, 2000). High and sustained yield could be obtained with judicious and balanced fertilization combined with organic manures (Kang, B.T. and V. Balasubramanian, 1990). Protecting long-term soil fertility by maintaining soil organic matter levels to certain extent, sustaining soil biological activity and careful mechanical intervention, providing crop nutrient directly by using relatively insoluble nutrient sources which are made available to the plants by the action of soil micro-organisms, nitrogen self sufficiency through the biological nitrogen fixation (Hossain et al.,,2004) as well as effective recycling of organic materials including livestock wastes organic manuring (Safdar, 2002).Soil degradation which is brought about by loss of organic matter accompanying continuous cropping becomes aggravated when inorganic fertilizers are applied repeatedly. This is because crop response to applied fertilizer depends on soil organic matter (Agboola and Omueti, 1982).Among differnret manues poultry manure is highly nutrient enriched organic manure since solid and silver-tongued excreta are excreted simultaneously resulting in no urine loss. In fresh poultry excreta uric acid or urate is the most exuberant nitrogen compound (40-70 % of total N) while urea a nd ammonium are present in petite amounts (Krogdahl, and Dahlsgard. 1981). Cooperband et al., (2002) assessed phosphorus value of different- age poultry drove composts and raw poultry litter. Available soil P was the highest in plots amended with 15-month old compost, followed by raw poultry litter amended plots. Poultry manure is an excellent organic fertilizer, as it contains high nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other essential nutrients. In contrast to mineral fertilizer, it adds organic matter to soil which improves soil structures, nutrient retention, aeration, soil moisture holding capacity, and water infiltration (Deksissa et al.,, 2008). It was also indicated that poultry manure more readily supplies P to plants than other organic manure sources (Garg and Bahla, 2008). As the use of poultry manure becomes an integral part of sustainable agriculture, demand for poultry products increases and pasturelands as well as croplands become nutrient saturated, which has ultimatel y increased water quality and public health concerns. In addition to high N and P content, raw poultry manure has a potential source of pathogen or E .coli (Jamieson et al.,, 2002 Bustamante et al.,, 2007) and endocrine disruptors (Deksissa et al.,, 2007).High and sustained crop yield can be obtained with judicious and balanced NPK fertilization combined with organic matter amendment (Kang and Balasubramanian, 1990).The benefits

Non Verbal Communication: Bangladesh And Panama

Non Verbal conference Bangladesh And PanamaThis study was conducted to gain a better understanding of containers in reciprocal ohm/Foreign wording classrooms in Bangladesh and Panama, and their consciousness ab issue Teacher-Student Interaction d unmatched Non-Verbal Communication in Bangladesh and Panama and foc employ on the importance and the situation in building student motivation in Second/Foreign linguistic process classrooms. Since position is a second langu epoch in Bangladesh and Panama, the result testament kick up how important it is for instructors to be apprised of their sign(a) discourse in classrooms to interact with the students in triggering their motivation.Chapter IINTRODUCTION position is a global language and is acknowledge the key means of international conference. Crystal (1997) and Nunan (2003) suggest that as a general consensus, English has suit an international language, one that is widely utilize in higher education, business, technolo gy, science and the internet.In Bangladesh and Panama, English is a second language for the majority of people, and t herefore it is important to consider some(prenominal) the teaching and accomplishment of English in both nations hence the conduct of this study. In Panama, Spanish is the official language, spoken by over 90% of Panamanians, but English is recognized as the official second language. Bengali is spoken by majority of the people in Bangladesh and English is the official second language. Since I had coming to both countries during the report of this Thesis, it was possible to conduct a comparative study of the teaching and take heeding of English in both, in spite of the many a(prenominal) cultural and linguistic differences, not to source the vast geographic distance between the dickens. It is hoped that the findings of this study will contribute to illustrate the importance of sign(a) confabulation in the teaching of English as a second language despite the differences between the peoples of the devil nations. Rather than the differences, it is in fact the comparableities that we sh ar as humans which enable much telling means of teaching and learning a alien language.In many countries around the world, the Communicative Language Teaching (CTL) method has taken prominence for the direction of learners of English as a second language. In Bangladesh, CTL has been emphasized since 1998 (Billah 2012), and since then, the teaching of English has continued to follow this method to the extent possible. CTL emphasizes the importance of fundamental interaction as the means and the ultimate goal of teaching a conflicting language this is in stark contrast to the much bookish methods of the past where printed literature and non-interactive classroom instruction were exclusively utilized to teach English. With the emphasis now breakn to CTL as an efficient means of language teaching, a more interactive antenna to the teaching of Engli sh as a second language has taken center stage glob aloney.In second language classrooms, the instructor plays an important lineament in the achievement of successful learning. One of the to the highest degree important features of a language classroom is that the lesson is an atomic number 18na of human interaction with different personalities, motives, and expectations at play. The learning aura, emotional climate, group cohesion, and enjoyment of world in the group are fundamental issues for motivation. In order to achieve an interactive atmosphere, we need an ambiance and traffic among individuals that promotes a inclination for interaction (Rivers 1987). Further, Rivers (1987) notes that Interaction is an affective, temperamental matter, not merely a question of someone saying something to someone, stressing the importance of converting the classroom into real-life contexts where the class experience mimics reality.Communication butt joint be defined as the sharing of ones thoughts and emotions with others, either verbally or sign-language(a)ly. Verbal communication includes spoken lecture and sounds, and the volume and tone use to express them. In contrast, sign(a) communication is unspoken, and includes facial expressions, body spark offments, gestures, observance of personal space, and optic assemble (Wiki). In an era of communicative language teaching, interaction is, in fact, at the heart of communication it is what communication is all ab protrude (Brown, H.D. 1994). The question is how should one interact in the classroom as a instructor? What forms or means of interaction should one use to harbor students motivated to continue the learning process? Verbal communications are clearly utilized, with words carefully chosen by instructors so that students gutter better understand English. But non-verbal communication is equally important and in classrooms we tend to ignore this factor.Non-verbal communications play an important role in interaction between a teacher and a student. In the classroom, a teacher and student, both consciously and subconsciously send and receive sign(a) cues several hundred times a day (Billah). Teachers should be aware of nonverbal communication in the classroom for two basic reasons 1) to extend better receivers of students messages and, 2) to gain the ability to send positive signals that reinforce students learning. In the process, teachers simultaneously become more skilled at avoiding prohibit signals that stifle a students learning.This study investigates and compares the consciousness of students of two countries, on two different continents, to a teachers interaction through nonverbal communication during the learning of English as a second language. The goal is to highlight the importance of nonverbal communication and the critical role it plays to motivate students as they pursue the learning of a second language, in this case, English.Research Questions and MethodsThe chief(prenominal) basis of this study started with class observation. After assessment of the observations made, an usurp questionnaire was designed to verify my implication on the way out ending with teachers view on my topic.The aim of this study is to find out how conscious students are about teachers interaction through nonverbal communication in second language classrooms at universities in Dhaka, Bangladesh versus Panama City, Panama, to cite the teachers near frequently used nonverbal behaviors, and to find out its role in incite students.The paper will also investigate teachers views on nonverbal communication in the classroom.The main questions of focus were as followsAre teachers in Bangladesh and Panama aware of their nonverbal behavior through interaction in their classrooms?Are students in Bangladesh and Panama aware of the types of nonverbal communication they receive from their teachers in classrooms?If yes, what type of nonverbal behaviors they worry to see in their teachers? What are the just about used ones?How meaning(a) is the role of teachers-student interaction through nonverbal communication? This will determine whether both teachers and students think that nonverbal communication affects interaction. If so, how does nonverbal communication affect student motivation? The opinion of students was assessed through Questionnaire.Is nonverbal communication playing a portentous role in our classrooms as it is claimed internationally? This will determine whether teachers from both countries, Bangladesh and Panama, can identify the importance of nonverbal communication as well as the types of nonverbal behaviors they present in classrooms. It will also verify how the students react to certain types of nonverbal communication.How conscious should teachers be in their nonverbal behavior in Second/Foreign classroom? This will focus more on how teachers think of their personal performance in the classroom through nonverbal communication, h ow appropriate is the teacher in using body language, gesture, expressions etc., and how much students are affected by a teachers performance in the classroom.In what ways is Bangladesh and Panama similar and/or different in recitation of nonverbal communication in classrooms?How does nonverbal communication express cultural values?What suggestions can be provided for academia?Chapter IILITERATURE REVIEWThis chapter will fold with the definition and major pieces of nonverbal communication. It will also discuss the importance of teacher-student interaction through nonverbal communication which ultimately triggers the motivation to learn.(2.1) Nonverbal CommunicationEducators, psychologists, anthropologists and sociologists define body language or nonverbal communication as communication without words. It includes overt behaviors such(prenominal)(prenominal) as facial expressions, eye contact, woful and tone of voice. It can also be less obvious, however, as through dress, postu re and spacial distance. The most impressive communication occurs when verbal and nonverbal messages are in sync, creating communication synergy (Wiki). A teacher can bring in positive reinforcement through the usage of body language in second language classrooms. Ralph Waldo Emerson and Mae West both understand the importance of body language. The tell tale body is all tongues, Emerson once said, temporary hookup West famously quoted, I speak two languages, body and English. It is just as important for teachers to be good nonverbal communication senders as it is for them to be good receivers (students). Teachers express enthusiasm, warmth, assertiveness, confidence and displeasure through facial expressions, vocal intonation, gestures and use of space etc. However, when teachers exhibit verbal messages that engagement with nonverbal messages, students become confused, which in turn can affect their interaction hence, motivation.How does a teacher keep students motivated to lear n a second language? In an ideal classroom, students pay attention, ask questions and want to learn. They do their assignments without complaint and study without being forced to do so. However, oftentimes this is not the reality. A teacher constantly has to work to motivate or keep students triggered to do their work. One such factor is non-verbal communication, which plays a role in triggering motivation so that students are not forced but rather feel like they want to learn. For instance, Morgan (1997) achieved a high level of motivation in the teaching of intonation by bringing in the learners social and cultural attitudes.The main types of nonverbal communication used by a teacher to interact in classrooms in foreign language are the Kinesics (the study of body language), the Vocalics (the study of the use of tone, pitch and volume of the voice), the Chronemics (the study of the use of time), the Oculesics (the study of the use of eyes), the Proxemics (the study of the use of s patial distance), and the Haptics (the study of the use of touch). YOU NEED TO CITE THE LITERARTURE WHERE YOU GOT THIS INFORMATIONIT IS NOT YOUR ORIGINAL WORK The focus will be on the first five categories of nonverbal communication and wearly discussion on use of Haptics will be mentioned separately.Emphasis on teachers nonverbal chemical reactions needs to reinforce in classroom processes for three special areas. First, nonverbal communication can be used to reinforce cognitive learning. Second, nonverbal communication reinforces emotional connections between the student and the teacher. Finally, nonverbal communication sets an organizational tone for the classroom-i.e. with respect to the management of the classroom. The use of non-verbal communication in the management of the classroom has implications for how conflict can be managed. The focus of this paper will be solely on the observation and surveys of students. It will focus on the types of nonverbal communication that can be used to motivate students in second/foreign language classrooms in Bangladesh and Panama.My research will concentrate on the use of body language, gestures, use of tone and pitch, use of eye-contact, and use of spatial distance. These are the factors that I observed in both the countries and accept will support my hypothesis.(2.2) Significance of Nonverbal CommunicationThe classroom is a setting where a great deal of nonverbal communication (ex through behavior) takes place (Galloway, 1979 Smith, 1979 Thompson, 1973 Woolfolk Brooks, 1985). Acceptance and understanding of ideas and feelings by teacher and student, encouraging and criticizing, silence and questioning are all manifested through communication of nonverbal behaviors. What does classroom teaching stool to do with communication in general and nonverbal communication in particular? Most educators would probably soak up an immediate response to however the first part of the question. From his anthropological pers pective, Montagu (1967) stated that the main purpose of education is to teach the art of communication since the child learns to become human through communication. Most of us would agree that the nonverbal is an essential part of their communicative act. Victoria (1970) commented further The process of education essentially is a communication process, not only in that sense of transmitting knowledge, but more particularly as it relates to interpersonal communication behaviors. Accordingly, the teaching process may be described as an interactive flow of information or communications which results consecutively in the processing of the information, decision-making, and learning which may be cognitive, affective, or psychomotor in nature. Because of the central role played by communication in educational practice, several writers defend suggested that communication skills be taught to students or teachers and that nonverbal training be an essential part of this instruction (e.g., Gr ay, 1973 Hennings, 1975 Rezmierski, 1974). Similarly, Victoria (1971) proposed that teachers should study qualitative aspects of the affective domain so as to better understand students. The last mentioned suggestion seems most appropriate in view of Davitzs (1964) pioneering work which demonstrated that emotional meanings could be communicated accurately in a variety of nonverbal media and that nonverbal emotional communication is a shelter, measurable phenomenon. AGAIN, I DONT THIS SECTION IS YOUR ORIGINAL WORK CITE YOUR SOURCES THE FLOW OF THE WRITING DOES NOT SEEM IT IS YOUR OWN.The need to sack up teachers explicitly aware of nonverbal facets of communication has been stressed by a number of researchers (e.g, Galloway, Koch, Montag Ostler Kranz). In part, these declarations seem to be reactions against the usual emphasis on verbal classroom processes and the almost total neglect of ever-present nonverbal behaviors. It has been reported often that teachers talk too much an d that classroom teaching conforms to the recipe of two-thirds (i.e., someone is talking for two-thirds of the total class time and two-thirds of that talking is done by the teacher). However, whether teachers are talking or not, they are always communicating. Their movements, gestures, tones of voice, dress and other artifacts, and even their ages and physiques are continuously communicating something to the students. In like manner, students are continuously communicating with their teachers, a point too often missed by teachers relying solely on the verbal message for informational purposes.Hopkins (1974) found that teachers with a more positive view of humanity used nonverbal communicative acts which encouraged student involvement in classroom interaction, opus teachers with a negative view of humanity tended to use nonverbal communicative acts which discouraged student involvement. In summary, the significant role played by nonverbal communication in classroom processes has b een emphasized. The argument has been made that interaction (communication) underlies teaching, that the nonverbal domain is an essential part of communication, and that many teachers display too little awareness of nonverbal behavior in their teaching practice.(2.3) Importance of Teacher-Student InteractionIn order to succeed, the teacher has to adopt a more interactive approach in the classroom. For instance, according to Prodromou (1991), a good teacher, among other qualities, is someone who is friendly, one of the students, and genuine in dialogues. She/he tries to communicate, look ats in students, makes students believe in themselves, asks for student opinions, does the lesson together, and talks about his/her life. One such factor is the level of course interaction. Laurillard, a theorist (1997) suggested that student-teacher interaction is a key component in academic learning.The study of nonverbal communication indicates that the teacher brings more to the classroom than k nowledge of subject matter and verbal fluency. Birdwhistell has tried to codify the language of body expression. In his famous work on body language he stated, There is a language of body expression and motion which is as ordered and structured as the language we speak. Like the language we speak it is made up in pieces of structure which can be assembled to form straight sequences of message material which others trained in the same code can translate and respond to in kind. Like Birdwhistell, almost all eminent linguists believe that the success of both the student and the teacher depend upon the effective communication between them in the class. That is through interaction. Stevick (1982) points out that the body language of the teacher is the most important thing in the class. Addressing the teacher community he wrote, it is the way you use your eyes, the distance you stand from your students, the way you touch or refrain from touching them-all of these unnoticeable things in t he class carry important signals which create a profound effect on your students feelings of welcome and comfort with you. Balzer, in his research on classroom communication, reported that approximately 75% of classroom management behavior was nonverbal. Similarly, Smith noted that teachers nonverbal behaviors are for students the signs of the psychological state of the teacher and so should not be taken thinly. Galloway (1980) believed that the use of paralanguage in the classroom encourages the speakers and consequently the people in the classroom will usher incr ministrationd desire to transmit a message and will thereby hold the listeners attention better.(2.4) Teacher-Student Interaction through Nonverbal Communication to Trigger MotivationThe study of the nonverbal communication of the teacher is to be more important (in the classroom) due to three reasons according to Kristin Hammond. First, the teacher acts as an artist whose performance in the classroom is commonly obser ved minutely by his/her audience (the students). If his/her body language is positive the students enjoy the lecture and consequently retain and remember most part of it. On the other hand, if the body language of the teacher is negative the students do not enjoy the classroom experience and feel discomfort uneasiness and lose most of the lecture taught. Secondly, the function of nonverbal communication is to supplement the verbal messages (of the speaker) by repetition, substitution, complementation and regulation. If the nonverbal signals of the resource person (the Teacher) are appropriate the student gets upper limit benefit from the lecture but if the nonverbal cues are contradictory the students usually get confused and in some situations are completely lost. Thirdly, a teacher is a role model (of the target language) for many students and they try to copy his/her body language, as there is no indispensable speaker model useable in many Bangladesh and Panama universities. It is motivation that produces effective second language communicators by planting in them the seeds of self-confidence. Therefore, the nonverbal communication of the teacher in these universities is more important for motivating the second language learners.Chapter IIICOUNTRY AND CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES(3.1) Bangladesh PerspectiveIn Bangladesh, the importance of English language is growing day by day. Students who spend four years in university need to learn English to enhance their career for the future. With the growing population, English is fitting more demanding than ever. We can see, in businesses, hospitals, buying house, corporate world and in education, English is needed. We see many institutions where classes are provided for those who are working to enhance their English coaching center to learn English is growing by the number and we see training seminars for teachers to become better in their teaching. The growing number of private universities is making it necessary to l earn English.But, the question remains, How do we motivate students to learn English? What elements enhance students performance? By keeping these questions in mind, teachers nonverbal communication during interaction with students plays an important role in second/foreign language classrooms. The lack of nonverbal communication is making interaction between teacher and student difficult. Students tend to take the classes lightly and later in the long run have to take more classes for their careers to learn English properly hence their communication lacks the necessary expression or voice in them.(3.2) Panama PerspectivePanama is a country where 95% of the population speaks Spanish. Like Bangladesh, English is a second language here as well. The university has extended English classes for the students where most of the teachers are natives.In Panama, teachers reflect on verbal communication more than nonverbal as well. But students are affected by the paralanguage in the classroom, hence resulting in lack of interest in the classes which affects them later on. As a teacher, the need of the understanding and usage of nonverbal is vital in keeping students motivated in the classroom because majority of the students in Panama come from a Spanish background. Their language has very few words which are interchanged with English words. In contrast, in Bangladesh, English words in Bangladesh, words like card, office, school, class, and many more are used by almost 98% of the population. So English words are perhaps more foreign to native Spanish speakers than they may be to native Bengali speakers. The need to understand students perception of teachers nonverbal communication in classroom in this instance is even more paramount.Chapter IVDATA outline AND FINDINGS(4.1) Universities in BangladeshClass Observation Two classes were observed before conveying the survey to the students. Based on my observations, I decided to concentrate on the nonverbal communication use d by teachers. The major goal of this survey is to determine how conscious students are about the interaction between teacher and student through nonverbal communication in the classroom.The Survey The questionnaire composed of two parts where both parts involve about nonverbalcommunication of the teachers but there were two main differences.First, in the first option there were four choices (a) Totally Agree, (b) True up to some extent, (c) Totally Disagree and (d) I dont know. The students have to select one of them and this way we will understand how conscious students are about their teachers nonverbal interaction. Secondly, the first portion generally asked about the liking of the students which was forthwith linked to students motivation and involvement in the class. In the second part of the questionnaire the queries were directly related to the retention of the lectures with the nonverbal communication of their teachers. The second survey provides only two options of Yes an d No and in this way the assessment will be definite.Later, both of them were combined to provide a coherent result of the findings. The results are as followsBangladesh Participants The questionnaires were distributed among American International University students and Stamford University students, 15 students from each university participated in filling out the questionnaires. The entire 30 participants native language is Bengali and it consisted of 19 males and 11 females. The response of students to a teachers use of body language and gestures is summarized in Table 1.The above data shows that students at universities in Bangladesh are aware of nonverbal communication in their classrooms. The assessment clearly shows that 18 out of 30 students at the two universities, which results in an just of 60% of the students, feel strongly motivated when teachers nod their channelize in class. The remaining 12 students, or 40%, responded that it was true to some extent that the teacher s head nodding results in motivation. This data is represented in date 1.21 out of 30 students agreed that teachers who smile at their students in the classroom encourage them to be confident in their class, averaging at 70%, while the remaining 9 student, or 30%, answered that this was true to a some extent. Figure 2 summarizes this finding.A teachers happy mood creates a good atmosphere in second language classroom with a high percentage from both the universities, where 27 out of 30 students answered Totally Agree in the survey, averaging at 90%, while the remaining 10% answered true to some extent. This proves the point that amongst students at universities in Bangladesh, non-motivation results when a teacher does not enter the classroom with a good mood. See Figure 3 for a graphical representation of this data.Finally, a teachers raised finger embarrasses students in Bangladesh, where 23 out of 30 students, averaging at 78% conveyed that their level of confidence goes down whe n teachers raise their finger while asking them a question, Figure 4.The students response to the use of various supra metameric features of language such as pitch, tone, rhythm and volume by the teacher is summarized in Table 2.In both universities in Bangladesh, 27 out of 30 students with an average of 90% survey result shows that monotonous tone creates boredom in classroom and 3 students answered true to some extent with an average of 10%, Figure 5.20 out of 30 students with an average of 66% totally agreed to the question that variation is tone, pitch and volume is liked, while 10 students, or 34%, answered true to some extent, Figure 6. The students response about the use of time by their teachers is shown in Figure 7.The result of this question shows that, 23 out of 30 students averaging at 77% of the students in Bangladesh in University take teachers casually if they are not regular in their classroom. As teachers for second language learner, one must remember that English i s a second language for the students and if the teachers are not motivated to be regular in their classes students will not be either. Second, 14 out of 30 students with an average of 47% answered that they look at their wrist watches if a teacher takes over-time in the classroom.The students response about the use of eye contact of their teachers is shown in Figure 8.The above result shows that, 25 out of 30 students with an average of 83% of the students feel encouraged when teachers use eye-contact. Visual contact with the instructor appears related to students comprehension. Furthermore, visual contact with the instructor increases attentiveness, which in turn triggers motivation. Second, 18 out of 30 students said that cold stares embarrass students with an average of 60%.The students response about the movement of their teachers in a classroom is shown in Figure 9.The result shows that 23 students totally agreed upon with an average of 78% that the students in Bangladesh feel teachers movement in the classroom keep them alert, which shows that students are affected by teachers use of space. Whereas, around 21 out of 30 students agreed with an average of 70% that teacher standing suave creates laziness in students.Data Analysis The above findings clearly state that our students in second language classrooms are conscious about teachers nonverbal communication used to interact, which triggers motivation. Smiling and nodding head in a classroom plays a vital role in universities in Bangladesh when interacting with students because the most dominant and reliable features of the face provide a constant channel of communication. They received high percentage of 60% and 90%. That is why when teachers interact there face provides shifty and evasive convey hate, fear, and guilt or express confidence, and support.90% of the student agreed that by using a dull tone in the classrooms, students think that the teacher is tired or boring. But as teachers of second lan guage, one must remember that we are providing a class time of 75 minutes and within that time frame a teacher must provide an interactive speech where students will be encouraged to convey their views and ideas about the topic.Eye behavior seems to be particular importance which resulted in 83% and it is used to indicate whether one is open to communication. This can be observed when a teacher asks the class a question students who think they know the answer will generally look at the teacher, while students who do not will usually try to avoid eye contact and in these cases cold stares must be avoided. Eye contact give provides a feeling of confidence and assurance from teacher. Therefore, plays an important role in second language classrooms.In Bangladesh, sometimes classrooms are small. If the teacher wishes to dominate the interaction in the classroom, the traditional arrangement is probably the best because students are seated side by side and the primary focal point is the te acher thus, most interaction will go from teacher to student and from student to teacher. But in some cases, it is important to move around in the classroom to keep the attention of the students when teacher convey a message. 78% of the students feel that when a teacher moves in the classroom they feel motivated to listen.Lastly, a regular teacher is seen as a teacher who is passionate (about the course), prepared and is there for the students. 77% of the students agreed upon this factor. On the other hand, students start taking classes casually if the teacher is gamement and hence demotivation factor arises in second language classrooms.Teachers view on Nonverbal Communication being used as a motivation in Bangladesh Two teachers from American International University and Stamford University participated in the interview questions.Theory of Normalisation of medicines Literature ReviewTheory of Normalisation of Drugs Literature ReviewWho Hasnt Tried At Least one?An investigatio n into normalised recreational dose use in the South West and whether legal controls act as an effective deterrence to contraband drug consumption.Literature reviewWhen considering the concepts of standardization and recreational drug use, it is crucial to first establish what is here meant by these terms in actuality. Often the two phenomena are met with difficulties i(Parker, Aldridge and Measham 1998), difficulties which form in conflicting theories, what they are defined as and in which social environments they can be correctly used. The following review will be focusing on how historically, the concepts of normalisation and recreational drug use have been adopted into society and to what extent they correlate with one another.Does normalisation only mean normal?The first development of the term normalisation was uncovered in Denmark throughout the 1950s, in order to create a normal surviving standard for individuals with forms of disabilities, disadvantages and those who w ere generally considered to lead a life in poor living conditions ii(Emerson, 1992). The concept came in form as the piece of Danish edict introduced by Niels Erik Bank-Mikkelsen called the iii1959 mental Retardation Act, its political aims were to fundamentally change perspectives towards those with intellectual difficulties, hopefully resulting in the group becoming normalised and attaining the same community based rights as those without disabilities, such as work, clothing, housing and education. Since the concept was first pioneered in the 1950s, the term, after being translated into English by Dr. Bengt Nirje, has been widely adopted and revisited in many versatile fields of service, academia and literature but mostly referred to as a principle and theory iv(Nirje 1969 vWolfensberger, 1972). Characteristically, normalisation refers to limited a group of individuals social behaviours (particularly deviants), and those behaviours becoming a part of the wider societys social norms, which become as close to day to day conventional life as is possible, ranging from lifes rhythms and routines to economic and environmental standards (Nirje 1969 Parker,vi Williams, Aldridge 2002). After making an impact of American professionals, Dr. Wolfensberger introduced the practice of normalisation into the United States in 1970. Wolfenberger made the concept of normalisation into a social relation by pointing out its obvious connections with other social concepts such as the labelling theory, but he also recognised that in fact the differences within disabled groups were still present despite the strive for social equality, this was later accepted by Emerson who pointed out that the concepts were transferable to any devalued social group or those at risk of being a devalued social group vii(Emerson and McGill, 1989). This then, as antecedently mentioned, allowed for other social sciences to adapt and investigate the theory in their specialised fields, where here speci fically is relevant, Criminology and drugs.Drug use The differences between recreation and dependence.Throughout the post-war decades there have been numerous drug epidemics, such as the speeding mods in the sixties to light-headed hippies during the seventies through to a new wave of heroin exploiters in the 1980s (Parker, Aldridge and Measham, 1998). Whilst all were thought of as a form of perfunctory drug taking, they were also known as behaviours found in the minority groups of the populations, and almost always referred to as deviant. But, a social change of massive proportions emerged throughout the nineties that was unparalleled to the previous decades. The nineties saw an unprecedented surge in drug taking amongst more than just the minority groups, much more. In fact, the dramatic rise in drug trying was among those considered ordinary and conventional. (viiiAldridge, Parker and Measham, 1999 ixAshton and Camali, 1995).A significant dominance in the development of the th eory known as the normalisation thesis is that of Howard Parker and Colleagues (1995). They suggest that the previous links between illicit drugs use and deviant behaviour no longer exist with regards to crime. They argue that it has instead become a part of the inwardness youth culture in the United Kingdom, which has essentially stemmed from our freedom of choices and consumerism/consumption habits. This evokes the idea that drug use is no longer problematic, but recreational. The central argument here is that globalisation has created issues for a post-modernistic Britain in the form of an increased tolerance for drug use, which has been influenced by consumption. This meaning a basic phenomenon here of supply and demand, but of an illegal nature, the demand for drugs theoretically being higher due to perhaps more disposable income, contributed by the ease of accessibility and sale. Thus, the freedom of recreational drug consumption is inevitably begun. This specific literature is one that spurred and encouraged the idea for the research in this dissertation. Much like the thesis here, the research in this document adopts the same rationales or assumptions but with a specific focus on people between the ages of 18-45 whom reside in the South West. In Parker, Williams and Aldridge (2002) they measure intelligent recreational drug use by adopting the normalisation theory. The research only includes specific drugs which are considered recreational. The research defines sensible drug use here by expressing that using sensibly does not include using drugs on a regular daily basis, as this can qualify, by definition, as addiction (Parker et al., 1998). They also specify that using a combination of any drugs at one given time does not equalize to sensible either. The drugs that were included in this research were Cannabis, Ecstasy, Amphetamines and LSD. The study in this document will also include a measurement of recreational use of these specific drugs along with others, in order to identify of which is most common, what other drugs most users have tried, followed by an evaluation into their reasonings why, and further analysis with regards to where the consumption takes place.As previously touched on, in Parker, Aldridge and Measham (1995) their investigation identified the gradual progressive nature of drug use from the sixties, seventies and eighties and how they differed from the nineties whereby the stereotypical drug user was no longer considered to be a part of a deviant subculture. Instead, they were found to be a part of mainstream youth culture that was said to be brought on by the shift in music at the time known as rave. The so-called dance music culture, inspired by DJs globally x(Forsyth, Barnard and McKeganey, 1997), became normalised throughout society, which encouraged youths to party hard and indulge in party experiences. The nature of their consumption pursuits untimately led to the introduction if many exciting and experience enhancing drugs, such as ecstasy xi(Pham and Puzantian, 2001). As is already known, since the nineties there has since been an ongoing culture of drug use amongst not only youths, but Britons in general, which still closely relates to the unprecedented nineties but instead of it just being rave related, it is now related to any experience where drugs could be seen as an enhancement. The core objective of this study aims to evaluate these theorys, as to whether Britons are taking drugs recreationally to feel good/enhance experiences, with a focus on the South West.Due to the influx of drug use becoming more substantial than ever in British history during the nineties, 1996 saw the Home government agency begin recording thins on the phenomenon through the law-breaking Survey of England and Wales. In 1996, the percentages of drug users recorded amongst 16-24 year olds in the previous year, was an astonishing 30% that rose to 33% In 1999. This age group was considerably hi gher than the general population as a whole, which was recorded to be about 11% at the time. Since then though, the recorded figures show a relatively flat movement with no major rise or falls in percentages amongst the 16-59 age group. In comparison, the 16-24 age group figures have been dropping at a steady rate since 1996. However, 2013-2014 did see the slight increase of 4% compared to the previous year, this figure has remained around the same presently as last years percentages being around 18%. The year 2015-2016 shows that 1 in 12 (8.4%) of adults aged 16-59 had taken a drug in the last year, which equates to around 2.7 million people. The proportion of adults ages 16-24 taking drugs in the last year more than doubled the proportion of the relative 16-59 group. Despite the these disproportionate figures though, the Home Office Drug Misuse findings state that Over the last five years there has been some fluctuation in this series, but is likely that the recent trend in drug u se among 16 to 24 year olds is relatively flat. However, the long-term trend is downward the 2015/16 estimate is statistically significantly overturn compared with 10 years ago (25.2% in the 2005/06 survey year) and with the start of the time series in 1996 (29.7%). These statistics essentially suggest a significant fall in most drug users. These figures, while they are dropping, are still considerably high. And so, the normalisation theory had been introduced, attempting to remove the stigmatism attached to young people who take drugs recreationally and move away from the idea that they are deviants and/or involved in crimes. Another objective of the research in this dissertation using survey analysis is to identify young people in the South Wests perceptions of drug use figures compared to actual figures, and whether they match what is going on. Do they feel as though recreational drug use is dropping, staying the same or increasing?In Muncie 1999, it is identified that trends in drug use have changed from the addiction of drugs such as cocaine and heroin, to more leisurely drugs used by the modern youths in leisurely activities, they include, alcohol, cannabis and ecstasy. Although being under the influence when taking these drugs which may lead to crime, this could be considered out of character, and not creating a crime orientated lifestyle which harder drugs and addiction may create such as heroin xii(Inciardi, 1979). An example could be the criminal behaviours that addiction to drug class A users may undergo such as theft, mugging, and burglary to fuel their habits and addictions xiii(Parker and Newcombe, 1987). However, when a young person leisurely uses recreational drugs such as ecstasy or cannabis, this does not necessarily result in in person to undergo criminal activities or offences. A clear activist for such statements is Professor David Nutt who was the chair of the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs, in 2009 however, xivThe Independent newspaper released an article stating that the professor was asked to resign because of his claims about illegal drugs such as ecstasy, LSD and cannabis being of less harm to human health than products legally available to the public like alcohol and tobacco.Although Parker et al. (1998) does not fully take postmodernism as structural inquality still exists, they believe that young peoples behaviour and choices have changed towards drugs due to a post-modern society that allows them to consume freely. For example, Mott and Mirrlees-Black (1993) found that the number of 16-19 year olds using cannabis more than doubled from 1983 to 1991. Normalisation has become an indicator of changes in social behaviour and cultural perspectives, meaning that the opinion about some illicit drugs has changed within the youth culture which in return affects their social behaviour as they do not think that using the drug is wrong or immoral. However, it could be argued that it is overgeneralizing to a ssume that all young people see drug use as normal, Dowds and Redfern (1994) found that approximately two-thirds of 12-15 year olds saw taking cannabis as a serious offense.Hunt and Stevens (2004) suggest that the government and media use drug normalisation as the proof for an increased disciplinary regulation and endorse policies as it is viewed to be a drug outbreak that needs to be broken or finished. For example, drug testing has been introduced in some schools to help stop usage by young people (Craver, 2004).Illicit drug use is frequently associated with the youth culture, Robson (1994) points out that the most common time for using or trying drugs is between the ages of eighteen and twenty-four. It is suggested that this is due to adolescents being the time of experimentation in many aspects of life which can lead to rebellion. Coleman (199213) suggests a psychoanalytical-theory of three main reasons why young people and drugs are linked together adolescence is a time of vul nerabilty as well as being impressionable, of rebellion and non-conformity and the need to be independant by disengaging from family relationships.These changes through adolescence support Colemans sociological theory that youth culture experiment in different social aspects of life, such as subcultures and trends or sexualities and in this case drugs. In relation to the normalisation theory, young people are able to experiment with drugs due to the wide availabilty of them as well as the access young people have to them due to people they know (Barton 2003).Referencesi Judith Aldridge, 1998. Illegal Leisure (Adolescence and Society). 1 Edition. Routledge.ii Emerson, E., Hastings, R. and McGill, P. (1994). Values, attitudes and service ideology. Severe Learning Disabilities and Challenging Behaviours, pp.209-231. Last Accessed 02/02/20127iii The Mental Retardation Act 1959.iv Bengt Nirje (1969). The Normalization Principle and its Human Management Implications. The International Soc ial Role Valorization Journal, Vol. 1(2) 1994v Wolfensberger, Wolf (1972) The Principle of Normalization in Human Services. Toronto, subject field Institute on Mental Retardation.vi Parker, H., Williams, L. and Aldridge, J. (2002). The Normalization of Sensible Recreational Drug Use. British Sociological Association, online 36(4). Available at http//journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/003803850203600408 Accessed 21 Mar. 2017.vii Emerson, E. and McGill, P. (1989). Normalization and employ Behaviour Analysis Values and Technology in Services for People with Learning Difficulties. Behavioural Psychotherapy, online 17(02), p.101. Available at https//www.cambridge.org/core/journals/behavioural-and-cognitive-psychotherapy/article/div-classtitlenormalization-and-applied-behaviour-analysis-values-and-technology-in-services-for-people-with-learning-difficultiesdiv/B8983BB5960551C5C256887B92289B64 Accessed 18 Mar. 2017.viii Aldridge, J., Parker, H. and Measham, F. (1999) Drug Trying and D rug Use Across Adolescence. DPAS Paper 1, London Home Office.ix Ashton, C. and Kamali, F. (1995). Personality, lifestyles, alcohol and drug consumption in a sample of British medical checkup students. health check Education, online 29(3), pp.187-192. Available at http//onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2923.1995.tb02828.x/abstract Accessed 21 Mar. 2017.x Ashton, C. and Kamali, F. (1995). Personality, lifestyles, alcohol and drug consumption in a sample of British medical students. Medical Education, online 29(3), pp.187-192. Available at http//onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2923.1995.tb02828.x/abstract Accessed 21 Mar. 2017.xi Pham, J. and Puzantian, T. (2001). Ecstasy Dangers and Controversies. Pharmacotherapy, online 21(12), pp.1561-1565. Available at http//onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1592/phco.21.20.1561.34474/abstract Accessed 23 Mar. 2017.xii Inciardi, J. (1979). Heroin Use and Street Crime. Crime Delinquency, online 25(3), pp.335-346. Available at ht tp//journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/001112877902500304 Accessed 23 Mar. 2017.xiii Parker, H. and Newcombe, R. (1987). Heroin Use and Acquisitive Crime in an English Community. The British Journal of Sociology, online 38(3), p.331. Available at http//www.jstor.org/stable/590692?seq=1page_scan_tab_contents Accessed 23 Mar. 2017.xiv Laurance, J. (2009). Sacked for telling the truth about drugs. The Independant. online Available at http//www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/sacked-ndash-for-telling-the-truth-about-drugs-1812255.html Accessed 23 Mar. 2017.

Charles Dickens :: GCSE English Literature Coursework

Charles DickensCharles Dickens, a nineteenth century writer, tells a boloney about a progeny boy in England and the adventures that happen to him. In readingthe book the reader becomes entwined in the plot by Dickenss expert typography and style. Using different scenes and scenarios, Dickensdisplays his characters psycheality in a way the few other writerscould. In the book Oliver Twist, Dickens uses different events thathappen about Oliver instead letting Oliver decide his own fate. In thebook, other characters determine Olivers path in life, and Oliver isthe subject around which the story revolves. The accidents in the storygive depth to Oliver and add depth to the story that increases elementsof mystery and suspense.In the beginning of the book, Mrs. Thingummy is helping Olivers mothergive birth to the young child. Mrs. Thingummy takes charge of Oliverslife just as he is born by stealing Olivers only link with his father,his mothers hus plenty. Stealing the mothers ring also commits Oliver toa life of lower social status because of his supposed illegitimacy.Oliver moves to the aristocratic forces in the book when he starts withabsolutely nothing from his very birth. The sides of good and evil,light and dark respectively, are also devices used by Dickens to displaydifferent sides of the social discover in England. Accidents tie in closelywith this device because it is by accident that Oliver transferres toone side or another. After spending time in the dark forces, Oliverthen switches back to the light side by a mould in with Mr. Brownlow, acompassionate citizen who pities Oliver and later takes care of him. Ofall the people that Oliver could run into Mr. Brownlow happens to be oneof those people who Oliver desperately needed and who could and wouldprovide for Oliver. In another example of an accident, and a shift backinto the dark forces, Oliver happens to make a wrong turn and end up inthe hands of a band of crooks who earlier had taken p ossession ofOliver. By chance the appropriate person was in the alley that Oliver,by chance, walked into when he was passing through the city of London.In the last transition of chance, Oliver is caught breaking and enteringinto a house that the band of crooks intends to pillage. This housecontains another compassionate and tender character that becomes like amother to Oliver. Luckily, and by chance, the shot that one of the

Vouchers and School Choice - No Need to Separate Church and State Essay

School Choice No Need to Separate Church and State    Imagine that the fire department decided non to put out fires at synagogues and churches.  Or imagine that the police decided not to answer calls from synagogues and churches.  So sorry, they say, theres a wall of separation around your church, and we cant vex it to help you.  Hire your own fire protection and your own security guards. This would rightly be seen as outrageous discrimination.  Sure, the government shouldnt specially favor spectral institutions, but the government shouldnt discriminate against them, either.  The government should separate itself from religion by not caring whether a person or institution is ghostlike -- by treating everyone equally regardless of their religious affiliation.                 The same is true of study, which is for many people the most valuable benefit that the state provides.  The governme nt shouldnt give more benefits to religious school students than it gives to students at secular schools, whether government-run or private.  But why must it give anything less?                 The First Amendment doesnt require such discrimination against religion it barely bars laws respecting an establishment of religion.  Equal treatment of everyone, without regard to religion, is not an establishment of religion.  This is why the GI Bill, which let soldiers choose either a religious education or a secular one, was perfectly constitutional.  Its why the government may give scholarships or student loans to al... ... voters can decide to help all children, without severalize against those whose parents choose a religious education.                 My parents sent me to secular schools.  If I have children, Ill probably send them to secular school s, too.  But I know others have a different preference.  They pay their taxes just like I do.  The government may provide services for these peoples kids on the same terms as it provides services for my kids.                 Thats the true meaning of the Constitution, whether were talking about police services, the fire department, the GI Bill, or elementary schools.  Equality for all.  Special benefits for none.  Discrimination against none.